Before anyone reads I thought I'd give brief overview of the feat it took to get this paper online Natrually I'm a perfectionist about my work, that or I don't even try, but I have never sat down for 10 hours without a break trying to perfect my work. Natrually after 10 hours it becomes tiring, so please excuse any typos or poor grammar I may have used. Enjoy!
Michael McMaster
6/6/07 Psychology 101
The Science of Psychology
Throughout all time, mankind has sought to understand. This is the core philosophy of science: to explain, to describe, to predict and ultimately to control. But what is it that allows reasoning, what allows the existence of science. The mind has always seemed to elude humanity’s understanding, as it must be enacted to reason of itself. Hence, psychology arises, a new field of science to better understand and examine the “mind,” the very manifestation that allots human’s to think. Like all sciences, many factions arose and the field began to evolve throughout time. As time passed, new schools and concepts of the mind arose ranging from concepts of rationality- based theories to Empiricist proofs. However, no matter which school arose, all of them were chastised ad qualified by the scientific theory.
But the understand the value of this statement, one must understand how and why psychology can be ranked amongst the core sciences of the modern society.
Psychology is accepted as a science for one sole reason, it passes the scientific theory. Psychology, like all sciences exist in the Epistemological Psychology because it seeks evidence of the mind and how it operates (Lecture Notes). These perspectives provide description of the mind at work, explain in what way it works, predicts the outcome or decisions made my the rational mindset, and ultimately control the mind such that people learn to understand the mind’s shortcomings, or demonstrate control over the mind. However, at the core of what is a scientific theory lies the ability to prove such a theory falsifiable. Since the very beginning of the schools of Psychology, beginning with the Psychodynamic School, psychology has been proven testable and falsifiable. Because of this, psychology can be considered one of the core sciences humanity enacts on a regular basis.
The unique nature of psychology however, resides in the multiple schools of psychology, for even though each one has its own unique lens in viewing the “mind,” each one has withstood the test of time. Perhaps the way to best understand psychology is to begin with the first school of psychology, the psychodynamic school (Psychology Book). The psychodynamic theory of psychology began with Sigmund Freud. Freud theorized that human “mind” was divided into three facets, formally known as the “iceberg theory.” The iceberg theory believed at birth the human mindset resided within psychic energies called a “libido” or the human primal lust. The human “iceberg” at this time residing under this primal force, is known as the “ID;” it is the basic lustrous force within the human psyche. As a child Freud theorized that the “ID” dominated the mindset. As the human grew up, the “iceberg” surfaced and from rising partially above the libido the “superego” and the “ego” were created. The “Superego” is the facet of the human mind that has absorbed the laws and moral standards of the society one lives in. The “ego” is the combined mentality acquired from a conflicting superego and ID; this is also the visible “mind” people present. To defend the mental well-being of the ego two dependant psychic forces, Repression and Catharsis occur to deal with deep trauma. Repression is a mental disconnection of an event, and catharsis is the reunion of such a memory (Lecture Notes). However, Freud’s most remembered theory was that of Psychosexual Development. From birth to the age of 1 year, a person enters the Oral stage, where all the psychic energies, wants and lust are focused on the mouth (Lecture Notes). From the first to the third year of age the person enters the Anal Stage, where the focus is primarily based on bladder functions (Lecture Notes). At the third stage, from the age of three to six, the stage divides based upon gender, and on a side note is where the sexism begins (Psychology book). In the third Stage the Phallic Stage, men enter what Freud calls the “Oedipus complex,” while women enter the “Electra” complex (Psychology book). The Oedipus complex consists of the theory that the boy begins to adopt the morals and values of his father, a longing for his mother, and an anxiety of castration (Psychology Book). The Electra complex believes that the girl begins a longing for her father, and while she lacks castration anxiety, she has phallic anxiety and desires power, which is displaced upon her body defense mechanism. From the age of six to twelve, the libido lies latent once more. At the final stage, the Genital Stage the person’s psychosexual development is complete. However, should the Id experience great trauma at any of the previous stages in its development, the person encounters “fixation” a phenomenon where the subject retains the characteristics of that stage. Perhaps Freud’s most remembered and criticized perspective however is on dreams. As Freud stated, dreams are “the royal road to the unconscious” (Psychology Book). Freud believed dreams were projections of unconscious wish fulfillment through one of two ways: manifest, where the desire is overwhelmingly apparent, or Latent content, where the wish is hidden or disguised through some form of symbolism. Freud’s pupils C. Jung and K. Horney also made exceptional contributions the psychodynamic school. C. Jung can be credited with projectionism, the concept of projecting one’s values and philosophies onto another. K. Horney, a woman, challenged Freud in Psychosexual Development in the Phallic stage, claiming it was men who had womb envy, not the other way around (Psychology Book). This she claimed was the reasoning for why so many buildings were erected; to compensate for the lack of an ability to create (Psychology Book). The Psychodynamic school of psychology performs research based on an interpersonal relationship, where the therapist observes and analyzes the patients reactions during therapy (Wikipedia). As an example of treatment for Psychodynamic school of thought, let’s assume a psychologically ailing person seeks a therapist from their school. The subject seems to be exhibiting irrationality, and extreme tension. As a therapist fro this school, questions are likely to begin concerning one’s childhood and any trauma one might have had in the past as a child. From there, the therapist might likely ask what the patient’s dreams have been lately. The therapist asks for any childhood tension in an attempt to establish catharsis, and relive psychic tension within the patient. with the same purpose, the therapist attempts so seek out any latent or manifest desires present within the dreams that the patient’s subconscious Id has been lusting for. Hopefully, through the patient realizing their subconscious desires or through catharsis of one’s troubled past, the patient will be cured of the mental illness by being relieved of the tension within their libido (wikipedia).
However, as Freud’s theories fell to criticism a new more simplistic concept sprang forth, the Behaviorist school. Soon Behaviorism began to spread engulfing followers of the Psychodynamic School along with a majority of the populous.
The leaders of Behaviorism were Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism started with Isaac Pavlov, a physiologist who was performing research on the digestion of animals (Psychology Book). From his study on salivation he discovered that an unconditioned stimulus combined with a unrelated stimulus, the normally unconditioned stimulus became a method for receiving a previously unrelated response! As in his experiment, if the bell is rang while the meat powder is delivered the dog associates the ringing of the bell with the food, eventually causing the dog to salivate at the ringing of a bell (Psychology Book). Watson, often called the “Father of Behaviorism” is credited with the first study of conditioned responses on humans. In his (in)famous experiment where he took a child form an orphanage, “Little Albert” and conditioned him to fear small animals. Through his demonstration of causing of causing a large sound to occur whenever the large and frightening sound was issued when the child approached the white rat, “Albert” soon grew a fear of small creatures especially rats. This led to he theory that phobias may be conditioned stimuli form childhood. Finally Thorndike created the concept of behavioral adaptation, proving a creature can be conditioned to perform a given task or action using conditional responses. As demonstrated with his experiment of the cat in the cage, as the cat is continuously placed back inside the cage, it learns through conditioning the release lever creates the desired reaction of releasing it. Finally the great Skinner, is known for his studies on operant conditioning (Wikipedia). From his work the concept of successive approximations was created; a concept that through reward for progressively better behaviors could ultimately lead to a normally peculiar behavior, even getting pigeons to play ping-pong (Psychology Book)! However for proper reinforcement a given ratio or interval must be established. FR, a “fixed ratio” reinforces a given behavior over a given amount of times the desired stimulus occurred (Psychology Book). This causes a high rapid rate of response. A prime example of this is “piecework” within sweatshops. VR, or “variable ratio,” rewards the conditioned subject at inconsistent spacing between the stimulus desired being enacted (Psychology book). Behavior in this manner is sudden and occurs in bursts, but the reward still remains inconsistent. An example of this are the slot machines in Las Vegas, allowing a given jackpot to be delivered at inconsistent times the lever was pulled. The conditioning schedule can also be fit to perform over a given time interval, known as FI and VI (Psychology Book). Reward or a response over a given interval produces low response, yet is stable and consistent. Variable interval is where the reward occurs over a variable time period, despite the given stimulus presented or the number of times it is enacted (Psychology book). Behaviorist concepts thrive off of the belief only through experimental methods can one truly evaluate properly (wikipedia). A prime example of this is the famed experiment of Cooley, proving that human beings themselves can and have been conditioned to trust an authority figure’s judgment over our own. A prime study that could be easily performed would be to test one’s conditioning in regards to racial and class tension. By placing a given subject in a situation and having them interact with another member of a different social class or race, and record the observations. All one must do is simply perform the same interaction except with different members of race and social class to attempt to observe if any different interactions occur. If they do, (and they likely will) then the subject has been conditioned to behave in a certain manner towards one person as opposed to another. As a behaviorist, to cure a patient with a mental “illness” all one must do is locate through experimental observation what conditioned stimulus is creating the ailment, and create another conditioned stimulus to counteract it. For example, if a person becomes afraid of cats as a conditioned phobia, all one must do to treat this illness, is create a pleasant stimulus and slowly accompany it with said cat. Soon, the cat will lose its ability to create a response of fear.
While Behaviorism was blazing the trial for Psychology, another faction still rose to oppose it, the psychometric school of psychology. Because of this school, the world has been “blessed” with byes and ethno and socio-centric Intelligence tests.
The Psychometric school of Psychology began originally with Binet who was originally asked to create an examination to explain and determine slow learners (Psychology Book). Stern created a test with questions based upon one’s intelligence for a given age, and then divided the answers correctly answered by their age; this became known as the infamous “Intelligence Quotient” or I.Q. (Psychology book). The psychometric school of intelligence believed that one’s intelligence could be broken down into two forms of intelligence: Fluid and Crystallized (Wikipedia). Fluid intelligence is the ability to learn and comprehend, while crystallized intelligence is the ability to retain memory (Psychology Book). To properly examine a subject, one would simply require them to take an examination and be evaluated. The problem with this concept however is that if a patient is mentally ill, it is merely because of their mental capabilities.
As the psychometric school drew attention to itself, skeptics came in to criticize it. While it did attempt to map “intelligence,” it failed to explain the actual phenomenon that occurs within the human mind during the thought process. Could human being possibly have their ability to reason change over time? As these questions arose, so did the Cognitive School of Psychology.
Cognitive psychology has been gifted with many great leaders, but none as well known as Jean Piaget and his theory of cognitive development of a child’s mind (Psychology book). Cognitive psychology believes that human psychological development is not continuous but is discontinuous, and as Piaget proposed occurs through several stages (Psychology book). The first stage is known as the Sensory Motor Stage, which occurs from birth to two years of age (Psychology Book). At this stage the infant theoretically cannot recognize the existence of something outside its realm of senses, known as object permanence (Psychology book). At the second stage, the Preoperational stage, from two years to six years of age, the child gains the ability of combining and separating in a logical manner, such as learning to build a block tower with a large base (Psychology Book). In addition, the child at this stage is not able to think backwards, what has previously been done cannot be undone (Psychology book). The third stage of Piaget’s Cognitive development is the Concrete Operational Stage. At this stage the child becomes able to reverse a process in thought, for example knowing two times four equals eight because four times two equals eight, where this kind of mental progression was to possible during the preoperational stage (psychology book). At the final stage the subject reaches the Formal Operations Stage, the child learns metaphysical concepts such as honor, loyalty, etc (Psychology Book). Another great contributor the Cognitive School of Psychology is Tolman, a behaviorist who discovered the concept of latent learning (Psychology book). Through his testing of rats in a maze, he based his research on two factors, error rate and time (Psychology book). For his control groups of rats placed in the maze, one was given no reward for completing the maze (psychology book).For the second control group, he allotted cheese as a reward to be placed at the end of the maze, and a learning curve began to appear. To his other control group which was not given any reward until the eleventh trial, he noted when the reward was given, rapid learning appeared to occur (Psychology book). Through this experiment learning was proven to occur despite the stimulus’s around it; this came to be known as latent learning. As the cognitive school of psychology expanded so did it’s influences. Miller, a cognitive psychologist discovered that people learn through “schema,” or relatable chunks of information that can be memorized in amounts of seven plus or minus two chunks of information (Psychology book). Through this concept of relating events or something of importance within a schema, memory can pass from short-term to that of long-term (Psychology book). Majority of short-term memory is maintained via rehearsal; either being Maintenance rehearsal, or elaborate rehearsal (Psychology book). In maintenance Rehearsal, the desired information is paced in short-term memory and looped in order to attempt to memorize it (Psychology book). Elaborative Rehearsal is where schema is used to help retain information (psychology book). Like memorizing even forgetting has its own methods, usually because of encoding failure, the inability to properly comprehend the information interference, an alteration in one’s lifestyle such that it affects memories, or decay, the lack of using the given information (Psychology book). Finally, in response the psychometric school of thought, two major psychologists stepped up to question its simple concept of intelligence. In Sternberg’s triarchic theory if intelligences, three main forms of intelligence exist, analytic, creative, and practical (Psychology book). Analytical intelligence is simply book smarts, the ability to solve problems mentally, while creative intelligence fosters insight via experience (Psychology book). Finally practical intelligence utilizes the ability to comprehend and alter something to operate efficiently in everyday life (Psychology book). In addition, Howard Gardner, a Harvard University psychologist argued that such a statement left many “gifted” people to be listed as otherwise for their inability to perform well under a school system (Psychology Book). Gardner proposed that there were eight different forms of intelligence: language, logic and math, visual and spatial thinking, music, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist skills respectively (Psychology Book). The most common methods used by cognitive scientists is the famous scientific method for experiments. A perfect study for cognitive psychologists is to examine children and their ability to reason. Cognitive psychologist’s focuses are on the ability of the child to reason according to piaget’s claims and to test the ability for one to use schema for memory. A prime test would be to ask someone a simplistic math question like what is nine times three. To satisfy the schema concept one could hold up a blank flashcard each time this question was presented to the subject. After this question is presented, the child can discuss another topic for roughly twenty to twenty-five seconds for the sake or retaining short-term memory, after which the child will be presented with the same blank flashcard and asked for the equation. Afterwards, that question may be followed up by the question what is three times nine, determining the ability to think backwards and the child’s cognitive development. According to a cognitive psychologist, for proper therapy a mentally ill patient needs a different outlook on how they view their world and what they valued as important (Wikipedia). By altering what is important mentally, the patient will also have an altered outlook on the world and be at the very least somewhat treated.
As all the fields of psychology fought for the title right to reign supreme Humanistic psychology arose with a new concept: psychology needed to fulfill its purpose by benefiting mankind, ultimately.
Humanistic psychology is a school unlike all the others: it is without much physical evidence but it’s meaning is useful to keep it in mind, what psychology’s purpose ultimately is. Two of the most influential characters in the field of Humanistic Psychology is Abraham Maslow and Rogers (psychology book). Maslow created the backbone concepts of humanistic psychology which are:
1) Not very much can be learned by studying animals,
2) Subjectively perceived reality serves as a primary lens of understanding human behavior,
3) Studying individuals provides more insight than studying groups of people and seeking what lies in common as a whole
4) The strides made in psychology should always be geared to the benefit of humanity
5) Research and experiments should be made in an effort to solve problems for people
6) Psychology should create a template for what defines a human being, including the value of language, metaphysical values, human emotion, and the methods humans seek fulfillment in their lives. Maslow also created a hierarchy of needs, where the human needs on the bottom must be met before the higher levels can be satisfied (psychology book). Finally, Rogers defined the concept of self-actualization or self-fulfillment (Psychology book). Self actualization occurs when someone learns to find a connection between the ideal self and the real self. This concept of self-fulfillment was later examined by Erik Erikson who believed adolescence to be a point of decision-making, where one chooses whether or not to commit and to explore one’s life possibilities (Psychology book). An idealistic study of a humanist psychologist would be to examine a high-school student during the summer. This study could be an ideal since it represents the opportunity to observe an older adolescent’s ability to seek and commit to a career path or job, and it also allows a chance to view an opportunity for the real self to merge with the ideal self, since the season is usually a break where students can achieve many of their goals without too much interference. Finally if a humanistic psychologist were to treat a mentally ill patient it would likely involve motivational counseling, and a new outlook on life. If one’s view is subjective to realty, than a change of view could easily serve as a treatment for whatever is ailing the patient.
As the humanists stepped forward, they grew rapidly but didn’t have a chance as technology caught up with psychology. Now the brain could be mapped and understood and hence the Bio-psychologists took the stage.
Ever since the story of Phineas Gage, the railroad worker who suffered brain damage, and suffered personality changes, scientists have been dying to understand the brain and its functions. As technology finally caught up with psychology, the bio-psychologists took precedence over all other schools. While one can argue what the mind is, one has great difficulty disputing the brain cells and they’re apparent operations. Biopsychology can be thanked by the work of T. Szazs, who boldly stated, “In absence of physical evidence, there can be no such thing as a mental disorder” (Psychology book). However the true beauty lies within the brain and central nervous system itself, not the scientist who discovered it. Within each neuron, brain cell, one finds an alarmingly complex structure. On each nerve cell lies dendrites, branch like-structures that transmit information from cell to cell (Wikipedia). On the other end lies the axon, which is used to transmit electrical impulses (Wikipedia). Interestingly enough, neurotransmission is a electro-chemical reaction, in that is brings the neurons from negative seventy mili-volts, resting potential, to a particular level of energy potential, being negative sixty mili-volts, the neuron will release a synaptic vesicle which will open the ion channel in another nerve, via a neurotransmitter entering the other nerve’s receptor site allowing ions to flow in and create a continuous charge, spiking at roughly positive thirty mili-volts, that will carry itself up through the central nervous system until instructions are given in response (psychology book). The brain regulates every single reaction, even the increase in heart rate during an emotional time or experience, courtesy of the sympathetic system (Psychology book). Also within the brain, two psychologists, Olds and Milner, found the reward center of the brain that can be stimulated to cause the sensation of pleasure. Using this structure in accordance with electrical stimulation, one could easily manipulate the mind of other creatures (psychology book). The “remote control rat” was a prime example of this, having attached a battery pack to a rat, inserting an electrode into each receptor for a rat’s whiskers and one for the reward center in the brain. By stimulating these in combination, the scientists were able to manipulate the rat literally by remote control (psychology book). Since biopsychology involves direct observation of the brain, t is not surprising that the primary method of research is direct observation. In addition, this is quite feasible for, unlike the other schools of psychology, Bio psychology actually can be objectively observed, as a brain can’t try to conceal itself or how it works. The perfect case for a biopsychologist is essentially any type of human being, particularly one’s with mental illnesses or disabilities. Biopsychologists find these situations ideal as, knowing physically what a normal brain looks like, they can identify abnormalities characteristic to other diseases. Essentially, biopsychology’s observe the physical characteristics of the brain. If a patient were to be treated for a mental illness by a bio-psychologist, the patient would likely receive a brain-scan, followed by prescriptions for a medication to deal with the illness.
Last but certainly not least, in recent times a new concept of psychology arose. The questions quickly arose, can the current schools of psychology really cross over cultural lines so easily, or are they centered to a pre-dominantly European society. In this light a new school has recently been trying to earn it’s right to be distinguished like the others, the school of sociocultural psychology.
The sociocultural school of psychology has only recently been trying to gain its independence from the other schools, however it has grown massively recently. The philosophy behind this concept of psychology is that when crossing cultural boundaries, one must accept a paradigm shift in psychology. The credited “father of multicultural psychology,” Sammy Sue, is an Asian-American citizen who studied how value systems change when you cross cultures (Psychology book). Along with him, John Berry, a Canadian psychologist who studies social structures via host groups, and Helms, the mother of Black psychology, have all come together to promote this new field and bring this school to fruition (Psychology book). The simple belief is that the other schools of psychology fail to grasp properly, the different cultural norms present in different cultural societies, especially common amongst minority groups. Social psychologists attempt to se experiments and quantitative research as the primary methods of their observations. An ideal study for a social psychologist would be to take a person seeking a psychologist of a given race, and observe the reactions received and the ability to properly asses and understand the patient’s needs based upon the cultural standpoints from which each therapist originates from. The main focus of the study worth observing is the actual interaction between the patient and the therapist concerning how well the therapist was able to comprehend the needs of the patient, while also keeping records of the cultural backgrounds of both parties. As a social psychologist, to properly treat a mentally ill person, the patient must first be properly transferred to a therapist who has been familiar or immersed within the cultural background of the patient. From there, the patient could be properly assessed as to what illness exists, if it exists and is not a cultural construct.
Conclusively, psychology has always been qualified by the scientific theory and, unlike the other sciences, it holds multiple stances on a single issue, creating a more encompassing viewpoint in a given subject. From the pure rational theories or Humanism to the pure empiricist proofs of Bio-psychology, psychology has enveloped the human mind in general, despite its individuality. And in the end, after all the research of the mind, to the proof of the brain’s function, one cannot easily defend the mind is merely atoms and molecules. The mind has not only allowed humanity the ability to reason of itself, it has allotted people science. In the end, even though the schools may bicker, mankind can finally understand, to a certain extent, the mind. In the end, mankind can finally understand better.
Bibliography
Behaviorism. WikiMedia. 6 June 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism.
Biological psychology. WikiMedia. 6 June 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychology.
Cognitive therapy. WikiMedia. 6 June 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy.
Coon/Herrigan/Ray, Psychology. Thomson Wadsworth, 2006.
Fluid and crystallized intelligence. WikiMedia. 6 June 2007
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence.
Neuron. WikiMedia. 6 June 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron.
"Psychodynamic psychotherapy." WikiPedia. WikiMedia. 6 June 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamic_psychotherapy.
Psychometrics. WikiMedia. 6 June 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometric.
Social psychology. WikiMedia. 6 June 2007 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology.
Thursday, June 7, 2007
Tuesday, April 17, 2007
Intelligence Assessment
After completing the Intelligence Assessment I have received a decent score, but nevertheless, one I would disagree with. Before I delve into the personal reasoning I have for not believing it being a proper assessment of intelligence I decided to do some research on the perception of what “intelligence” is. As David Wechsler noted intelligence is, “…the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment. [1]” However, with even such a seemingly enveloping explanation, it still leaves loopholes. For example, if one is to measure intelligence even within a given environment, it still fails to consider the deviation of one’s environment. Factors such as geographic environment, culture, race, and social status effectively alter one’s environment. In an even broader perspective, taking into consideration the different perceptions of individuals, and the inability to prove that there is a universal reality, one must doubt how an Intelligence test can actually exist.
However, in an attempt to create a more consistent understanding of intelligence, the psychometric school of psychology created two subgroups of intelligence; fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
[2] Crystallized intelligence is the acquired knowledge that comes from education and communication. For example a child’s belief in the existence of the Tooth Fairy is crystallized knowledge, it is created through the communication between two or more parties. Crystallized intelligence can be reshaped. For example if the same child were to be later informed that no such being exists, that newly acquired knowledge is re-shaped crystallized intelligence. However, as can be noted crystallized intelligence is relative to one’s current understanding of their surroundings (I.e. crystallized intelligence may vary amongst factors such as age, geographical location, social status, gender, and race.) Because of this, the measurement of crystallized intelligence always carries some byes, as was proven by Adrian Drove, a African American Sociologist ad creator of the Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity.
On the other end of the spectrum lies what the psychometric school considers Fluid Intelligence. Fluid Intelligence, is the ability to recognize patterns, solve problems and the ability to learn itself. [2] This form of intelligence is assumable more difficult to find byes in, as general problem solving is a constant ability amongst the human populous. However, not intending to be cynical, but in order to test fluid intelligence, the factor of laziness also falls into play; if the subject becomes distracted or is unwilling to attempt to solve the problem the resulting score becomes a inadequate measurement. Also, without requiring an explanation of the reasoning behind answers, it is theoretically possible to have a chimp take an IQ exam and luckily guess all the correct answers resulting in the IQ of a genius! This creates the assumption, that while intelligence quotient tests are useful, they are not in the least bit accurate. However, relative to a willing participant who also belongs to the given cultural discriminates, the IQ testing works marvelously.
To conclude things I will release my score. After my first attempt of taking the Classical IQ test, it came up with a resultant score of 133. As we all know I’m not a gifted learner, I can assume that IQ tests are not only inaccurate but byes as well. A good portion of the test was vocabulary, which being the also found in the SAT I was able to skim by on. In addition, considering that vocabulary is a common value amongst middle-class white Americans, I would not be surprised if that particular group scored well in that portion of the IQ test. Naturally, knowledge of the English vocabulary doesn’t make one more intelligent than other individuals who are multi-lingual and have diversified their vocabulary. Conclusively, I would have to side with Gould’s opinion that intelligence cannot be measured, at the very least not with this form of testing. [1] However, to give a shimmering beacon of hoe, I can certainly say these tests have appeared to become less byes over the years.
As far as the test on learning styles, I also have to report there is simplistic byes on the part of the individual. While it certainly can help people understand how they learn, the answer choices are far to simplistic to accurately assess how people learn. After taking the test it assessed that I am “multimodal” meaning I earn through multiple methods equally well. The only problem is that the individuals themselves are reporting how they think they learn, which in turn will create the answer they desire. If the person believes they learn best through methods that are utilize vision, the test merely reciprocates that idea and notifies them they learn that way. Their assumptions are confirmed, always, which makes me doubtful of its accuracy.
Overall, one must wonder what purpose does an IQ test really have? Does it really matter? I would argue that it is merely a test, an a byes one at that. If you are to play one game show like Jeopardy and the categories are all tailored to your competitors who have respectively studied in that category while you have not, their scores will likely be higher. Similarly, the tests as far as crystallized intelligence a byes to certain groups, allotting them higher IQ scores. In addition, during said game show, if you are aware of the answer to a problem but are to lazy to answer the question, then the fluid intelligence will be measured inaccurately. Even with modern strides towards more accurate testing such as Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, [1] it is still to be noted that it still holds byes according to culture in general. Conclusively, I would argue that IQ testing is completely byes, and should not be taken seriously.
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence
However, in an attempt to create a more consistent understanding of intelligence, the psychometric school of psychology created two subgroups of intelligence; fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
[2] Crystallized intelligence is the acquired knowledge that comes from education and communication. For example a child’s belief in the existence of the Tooth Fairy is crystallized knowledge, it is created through the communication between two or more parties. Crystallized intelligence can be reshaped. For example if the same child were to be later informed that no such being exists, that newly acquired knowledge is re-shaped crystallized intelligence. However, as can be noted crystallized intelligence is relative to one’s current understanding of their surroundings (I.e. crystallized intelligence may vary amongst factors such as age, geographical location, social status, gender, and race.) Because of this, the measurement of crystallized intelligence always carries some byes, as was proven by Adrian Drove, a African American Sociologist ad creator of the Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity.
On the other end of the spectrum lies what the psychometric school considers Fluid Intelligence. Fluid Intelligence, is the ability to recognize patterns, solve problems and the ability to learn itself. [2] This form of intelligence is assumable more difficult to find byes in, as general problem solving is a constant ability amongst the human populous. However, not intending to be cynical, but in order to test fluid intelligence, the factor of laziness also falls into play; if the subject becomes distracted or is unwilling to attempt to solve the problem the resulting score becomes a inadequate measurement. Also, without requiring an explanation of the reasoning behind answers, it is theoretically possible to have a chimp take an IQ exam and luckily guess all the correct answers resulting in the IQ of a genius! This creates the assumption, that while intelligence quotient tests are useful, they are not in the least bit accurate. However, relative to a willing participant who also belongs to the given cultural discriminates, the IQ testing works marvelously.
To conclude things I will release my score. After my first attempt of taking the Classical IQ test, it came up with a resultant score of 133. As we all know I’m not a gifted learner, I can assume that IQ tests are not only inaccurate but byes as well. A good portion of the test was vocabulary, which being the also found in the SAT I was able to skim by on. In addition, considering that vocabulary is a common value amongst middle-class white Americans, I would not be surprised if that particular group scored well in that portion of the IQ test. Naturally, knowledge of the English vocabulary doesn’t make one more intelligent than other individuals who are multi-lingual and have diversified their vocabulary. Conclusively, I would have to side with Gould’s opinion that intelligence cannot be measured, at the very least not with this form of testing. [1] However, to give a shimmering beacon of hoe, I can certainly say these tests have appeared to become less byes over the years.
As far as the test on learning styles, I also have to report there is simplistic byes on the part of the individual. While it certainly can help people understand how they learn, the answer choices are far to simplistic to accurately assess how people learn. After taking the test it assessed that I am “multimodal” meaning I earn through multiple methods equally well. The only problem is that the individuals themselves are reporting how they think they learn, which in turn will create the answer they desire. If the person believes they learn best through methods that are utilize vision, the test merely reciprocates that idea and notifies them they learn that way. Their assumptions are confirmed, always, which makes me doubtful of its accuracy.
Overall, one must wonder what purpose does an IQ test really have? Does it really matter? I would argue that it is merely a test, an a byes one at that. If you are to play one game show like Jeopardy and the categories are all tailored to your competitors who have respectively studied in that category while you have not, their scores will likely be higher. Similarly, the tests as far as crystallized intelligence a byes to certain groups, allotting them higher IQ scores. In addition, during said game show, if you are aware of the answer to a problem but are to lazy to answer the question, then the fluid intelligence will be measured inaccurately. Even with modern strides towards more accurate testing such as Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, [1] it is still to be noted that it still holds byes according to culture in general. Conclusively, I would argue that IQ testing is completely byes, and should not be taken seriously.
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence
Friday, April 13, 2007
Unusual Behaviors
Consdering the study of neutral stimuli being conditioned to create previously unrelated reactions, I decided to consider a few of my own behaviors.
To start with my most common behavior is sometimes staring off into the distance with my head rested in my palm while I think. I would theorize this behavior started because ever since childhood I have been impatient ad lazy. In school, as in most organized settings, blatant disaste or disinterest is strictly prohibited. There I was frequently bored of what I had to do or simply disgusted at the ridiculously low pace at which people have to learn at. Boredom, lead to sleepiness, and since having your head down on the desk was strictly prohibited, I resorted to this habit along with slouching. Simply, my behavior was generally rewarded with some form of entertainment, in the very least me being able to relax. Being bored with nothing to do is unbearable torment for me, unless I don't want to do anything in which case I am tormented in doing things. Since I am frequently bored by life in general (I'm not mean but I'm spoiled dang it!) or by classes I often exhibit this behavior. While I rarely get any free time or something to do, it irrtiates the professors I'd assume which at least gets the message across. For example, I actually exhibited this behavior just now because I'm getting bored of typing!
The effects of this behavor is none to severe, but I do frequently rest my head on my palm, even when driving, which may not be the safest measure. Because of this,and the frequency of this habit, people aoften assume that I am easily disinterested in their projects or generally whatever they happen to be doing at the time, when in actuality I am simply just acting out of habit. In truth I do exhibit these behaviors when I am bored, but it has been become so common that I perform this behavior almost consistently.
My second unusual behavior is my fear of peronsal contact. Shocker people, I don't mind hugs but I do have issues! From elementary school early high school I was frequently picked on ( I was big and a pacifist so I suppose it made people feel better if they could try and take it out on me). Because of most of my pysical contact being pain, and potentially the fact every girl I've ever liked was either with me for a free meal or to crush me (I do know evil people) I have had personal space issues.
Ths behavior is perphaps one of my worst behaviors since it is coupled with a ingrained mentality of distrust. Combining this reason with the fact people often tell me about the "skeletons in their closet" and/or try to expose fine for public display and humiliation, I don't easily have deep rooted trust in people. Since physical contact reminds me of past injury of those who have hurt me int he past (being both physical and emotional) I have a general distaste for it. I just have had a long standing distrust of people in general ( I hide it well don't I?).
Perphaps one of my most common behaviors is my frequent and incessant blinking. Whenever I approach a huge exam, professor who I fear (I don't easily talk with authority figures), or attempt any seemingly overlooming task I always seem to blink. The basis for this is purely simple conditioning. As I recall, I have always have had poor vision (I blame genetics and video games!). Because of this I have almost always had to wear glasses. Huge glasses that make you look like a nerd, not only cause strain on the eyes, but also creates humiliatin amongst piers. In addition to allergies, these two have always been a butal combination. Since humiliation or the stress of a test or some unfortuneate event looming in the near future near by (I have bad luck), stress and humiliation quickly bcame a conditioned stimulus for such horrid reactions.
The effects of this reaction have been hard to overcome if they have even been extinguished. It prolonged me 6 months from getting my driver's liscense alone because of it. My sheer fear and stress of learning how to drive left me with horrid responses such as this. Since blinking and an allergic reaction occuring in the sinuses are detrimental to good driving, I performed poorly, which in turn led to the conditioned stimulus to continue onward. Because of this stimulus, my emotional stability has become a window to the outside world. If my eyes are blinking incessantly, and my sinuses are kicking in, it is ither severe allergies, strain from my overly huge glasses, or a sure sign I have been severely panicked or offended.
To start with my most common behavior is sometimes staring off into the distance with my head rested in my palm while I think. I would theorize this behavior started because ever since childhood I have been impatient ad lazy. In school, as in most organized settings, blatant disaste or disinterest is strictly prohibited. There I was frequently bored of what I had to do or simply disgusted at the ridiculously low pace at which people have to learn at. Boredom, lead to sleepiness, and since having your head down on the desk was strictly prohibited, I resorted to this habit along with slouching. Simply, my behavior was generally rewarded with some form of entertainment, in the very least me being able to relax. Being bored with nothing to do is unbearable torment for me, unless I don't want to do anything in which case I am tormented in doing things. Since I am frequently bored by life in general (I'm not mean but I'm spoiled dang it!) or by classes I often exhibit this behavior. While I rarely get any free time or something to do, it irrtiates the professors I'd assume which at least gets the message across. For example, I actually exhibited this behavior just now because I'm getting bored of typing!
The effects of this behavor is none to severe, but I do frequently rest my head on my palm, even when driving, which may not be the safest measure. Because of this,and the frequency of this habit, people aoften assume that I am easily disinterested in their projects or generally whatever they happen to be doing at the time, when in actuality I am simply just acting out of habit. In truth I do exhibit these behaviors when I am bored, but it has been become so common that I perform this behavior almost consistently.
My second unusual behavior is my fear of peronsal contact. Shocker people, I don't mind hugs but I do have issues! From elementary school early high school I was frequently picked on ( I was big and a pacifist so I suppose it made people feel better if they could try and take it out on me). Because of most of my pysical contact being pain, and potentially the fact every girl I've ever liked was either with me for a free meal or to crush me (I do know evil people) I have had personal space issues.
Ths behavior is perphaps one of my worst behaviors since it is coupled with a ingrained mentality of distrust. Combining this reason with the fact people often tell me about the "skeletons in their closet" and/or try to expose fine for public display and humiliation, I don't easily have deep rooted trust in people. Since physical contact reminds me of past injury of those who have hurt me int he past (being both physical and emotional) I have a general distaste for it. I just have had a long standing distrust of people in general ( I hide it well don't I?).
Perphaps one of my most common behaviors is my frequent and incessant blinking. Whenever I approach a huge exam, professor who I fear (I don't easily talk with authority figures), or attempt any seemingly overlooming task I always seem to blink. The basis for this is purely simple conditioning. As I recall, I have always have had poor vision (I blame genetics and video games!). Because of this I have almost always had to wear glasses. Huge glasses that make you look like a nerd, not only cause strain on the eyes, but also creates humiliatin amongst piers. In addition to allergies, these two have always been a butal combination. Since humiliation or the stress of a test or some unfortuneate event looming in the near future near by (I have bad luck), stress and humiliation quickly bcame a conditioned stimulus for such horrid reactions.
The effects of this reaction have been hard to overcome if they have even been extinguished. It prolonged me 6 months from getting my driver's liscense alone because of it. My sheer fear and stress of learning how to drive left me with horrid responses such as this. Since blinking and an allergic reaction occuring in the sinuses are detrimental to good driving, I performed poorly, which in turn led to the conditioned stimulus to continue onward. Because of this stimulus, my emotional stability has become a window to the outside world. If my eyes are blinking incessantly, and my sinuses are kicking in, it is ither severe allergies, strain from my overly huge glasses, or a sure sign I have been severely panicked or offended.
Monday, March 19, 2007
What Is truth? The truthful answer...
While Trying to examine my understand ing of truth and it's importance, I decided to find some understandings and definitions of truth. Whle Iwas expecting lengthy definitions what I found was conflicting theories on the subject itself.
The main theories in the order I reviewed them is as follows:
Correspondence theory believes that truth is congruent with the way things are. This concept of truth focuses on there being a universal reality and truth that transcends all other things. However as can be expected the flaws to this is the philosophy is the reliance on all people being capable of definitely being able to confirm the existence of this universal truth.
Coherence theory of truth assumes that truth is found in things that are logically acceptable. Of coure the problems with a theory on what is logically acceptable and fitting is that logic is constained to human understanding. During Einstein's time Quantum Physics was considered unacceptable and illogical.
Constructivist theory believes that truth is upheld through social construction. Among them, are socially constructed physical appearances, such as race and gender. This theory holds against the correspondence theory but appears to be more viable than it due to simple examles. A prime example is language; since language is relative to cultural values and cannot be completely translated to differant languages, and that reality is explained through language, there are percieved parts of reality that cannot be fully explained or communicated to members otside a given community. In this case, it is safe to assume that society may have some effect on understanding society.
Consensus theory believes that all things agreed upon within a reasoning community, is unarguably a truth. However, once again the flaw presented is the relience on human ability to percieve truth,if said truth exists. This theory merely justifies the perceptions of the group concensus making it inefficient.
Pragmatic theory assumes that all truth s obtained through practice. While truth is present, only through practice, it also states that all partial truths wil eventually approach a correct understanding. A prime example is taking the limit of a integral in calculus, all the numbers and calculations all theoretically pproacha universal truth.
Considering these main theories I can assume, from personal byes in mind, that the only reasonable theories present are that of the constructionist theory and that of the pragmatic theory. While one can assume that by believing in science itself pragmatic theory should hold up, as practice an expiriment should reveal absolutes, or the absence of it. In any case, the real question lies in the existence and validity of the Constructivist theory and if so to what extent. In this case, I would asuume that it does hold so to a certaine extent but not entirely. Sadly the only way to prove whether constructionist theory is false would be to create a society without conditioning, which is impossible to test.
In any case, it is best to assume truth is a constant as in pragmatic theory not only for the sake of sanity and that of the necessity to be constant for human simplicity. If truth becomes questioned, then it may be scienttfically sound to abandon all present data ammased which would be detrimental to our society.In any case, truth is as truth does in that it exists but may never be fully understood by people.
The main theories in the order I reviewed them is as follows:
Correspondence theory believes that truth is congruent with the way things are. This concept of truth focuses on there being a universal reality and truth that transcends all other things. However as can be expected the flaws to this is the philosophy is the reliance on all people being capable of definitely being able to confirm the existence of this universal truth.
Coherence theory of truth assumes that truth is found in things that are logically acceptable. Of coure the problems with a theory on what is logically acceptable and fitting is that logic is constained to human understanding. During Einstein's time Quantum Physics was considered unacceptable and illogical.
Constructivist theory believes that truth is upheld through social construction. Among them, are socially constructed physical appearances, such as race and gender. This theory holds against the correspondence theory but appears to be more viable than it due to simple examles. A prime example is language; since language is relative to cultural values and cannot be completely translated to differant languages, and that reality is explained through language, there are percieved parts of reality that cannot be fully explained or communicated to members otside a given community. In this case, it is safe to assume that society may have some effect on understanding society.
Consensus theory believes that all things agreed upon within a reasoning community, is unarguably a truth. However, once again the flaw presented is the relience on human ability to percieve truth,if said truth exists. This theory merely justifies the perceptions of the group concensus making it inefficient.
Pragmatic theory assumes that all truth s obtained through practice. While truth is present, only through practice, it also states that all partial truths wil eventually approach a correct understanding. A prime example is taking the limit of a integral in calculus, all the numbers and calculations all theoretically pproacha universal truth.
Considering these main theories I can assume, from personal byes in mind, that the only reasonable theories present are that of the constructionist theory and that of the pragmatic theory. While one can assume that by believing in science itself pragmatic theory should hold up, as practice an expiriment should reveal absolutes, or the absence of it. In any case, the real question lies in the existence and validity of the Constructivist theory and if so to what extent. In this case, I would asuume that it does hold so to a certaine extent but not entirely. Sadly the only way to prove whether constructionist theory is false would be to create a society without conditioning, which is impossible to test.
In any case, it is best to assume truth is a constant as in pragmatic theory not only for the sake of sanity and that of the necessity to be constant for human simplicity. If truth becomes questioned, then it may be scienttfically sound to abandon all present data ammased which would be detrimental to our society.In any case, truth is as truth does in that it exists but may never be fully understood by people.
Friday, March 2, 2007
Just a update on my interests...
Well, to be honest I am a Biology major, no suprise there, which I guess makes me 100% science geek. I chose my major originaly because I wanted to be able to work in the medical field amongst people who scoiety often considers "untouchables" because I don't think to many people can stand the emotional strain of working with people who have terminal diseases. As far as hobbies, I enjoy literally almost everything. Like a true nerd I build models, ride motorcylce's out in the dunes, just about anything you can think of. Sorry for not being more specific, I'll have to think about what are my most unique and/or favorite hobbies. Also, I just learned how to differentiate between comments and posting my own blogs.
Friday, February 23, 2007
First Blog
Hi everyone,
If you're reading this, you either have to much time on your hands, or you're doing this for Phychology. In any case, I think it would be appropriate to introduce myself. I'm Michael McMaster, no suprise there considering it's also part of the blog's address. I presently Glendale Community College and am studying as a Biology major. My intendeed field for a career is oncology, because having lost many family members to cancer, I have always had to the desire to postpone the damage it can caue both to the individual and the family. My personal interests are everything one can think of, I have yet to try something I did not like. My reason for taking this course, is that I have been interested in the concept of self-perception and have been intersted in the mentality of human behavior. In addition, planning to be a doctor in the future, I believe it crucial to understand not only the physical concept of the human body but the mental concept that is intertwined with it. In any case, I looke forward to meeting everyone, and I look forward to reading everyone's goals, aspirations, and thoughts on issues that commonly arise within our world.
Peace and Love,
~Michael
If you're reading this, you either have to much time on your hands, or you're doing this for Phychology. In any case, I think it would be appropriate to introduce myself. I'm Michael McMaster, no suprise there considering it's also part of the blog's address. I presently Glendale Community College and am studying as a Biology major. My intendeed field for a career is oncology, because having lost many family members to cancer, I have always had to the desire to postpone the damage it can caue both to the individual and the family. My personal interests are everything one can think of, I have yet to try something I did not like. My reason for taking this course, is that I have been interested in the concept of self-perception and have been intersted in the mentality of human behavior. In addition, planning to be a doctor in the future, I believe it crucial to understand not only the physical concept of the human body but the mental concept that is intertwined with it. In any case, I looke forward to meeting everyone, and I look forward to reading everyone's goals, aspirations, and thoughts on issues that commonly arise within our world.
Peace and Love,
~Michael
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